Risk factors for depression: The causes explained

Psychological risk factors for depression

Some of the psychological risk factors for depression include:

Chronic stress

Chronic stress refers to stress that is ongoing. It is an important factor in many mental health conditions, including depression.

A 2021 review of previous studies suggests that high stress for prolonged periods may have a negative effect on the brain and nervous system, resulting in hyperactivity of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis, which manages the body’s stress response.

Scientists are still learning how this relationship may work.

Low self-esteem

Low self-esteem is when a person has a negative view of themselves. People with low self-esteem may criticize themselves often, lack confidence, or have difficulty believing compliments.

The 2021 review notes that numerous studies have linked low self-esteem and feelings of shame or worthlessness with depression.

Traumatic experiences

Traumatic experiences can include any event that feels extremely threatening. Many people experience these events at some point, but sometimes, they cause lingering effects. Depression can be one of them.

Depression has particular associations with early life trauma, or adverse childhood experiences (ACEs). Examples of ACEs include:

• experiencing or witnessing violence
• the death of a significant figure, such as a parent
• living in an unstable home environment

The more ACEs a person has in childhood, the more likely they are to experience depression in their lifetime.

A 2019 studyTrusted Source from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) estimates that preventing ACEs could have prevented 21 million cases of depression between 2015 and 2017. This is equivalent to a 44.1% reduction.

Biological risk factors for depression

Some of the biological risk factors for depression include:

Genetics

People with a family history of depression or other mental health conditions have a higher risk of developing depression themselves.

This can be due to the way depression affects family dynamics and learned behaviors across generations. But scientists have also identified a number of gene changes that may increase the risk, too.

However, although a 2021 review describes the role of genetics as a “moderate” factor in depression risk, some large studies have not found a link between some of the proposed genes and depression risk. More research is necessary to better understand this aspect of the condition.

Learn more about whether depression is hereditary.

Physical illness

Both medical emergencies and chronic illnesses have an association with depression. Sudden and severe conditions can be traumatic to experience. Many conditions can also affect a person’s quality of life, self-esteem, and stress levels.

Some health conditions also affect how the nervous system itself functions. According to a 2021 review, alterations in brain chemistry, the microbiome, and inflammation may all have links to depression.

Learn more about depression and chronic illness.

Drugs

According to a 2018 studyTrusted Source, many adults in the United States take medications that can cause depression as a side effect. Some examples of drugs that can do this include:

• some blood pressure medications
• some pain medications
• medications that affect hormone levels, such as estrogen or finasteride
• anticonvulsants, such as gabapentin
• corticosteroids
• benzodiazepines

Antidepressants, which can help treat depression, may also cause depression as a side effect.

This is not a comprehensive list. If a person with depression takes medications that could be contributing to depression symptoms, they should speak with a doctor. Do not change the dosage or stop the drug without getting medical advice.

Social and environmental risk factors

Depression does not only occur due to individual factors. As with many health conditions, it can also be a product of the broader trends that affect whole groups of people.

People in these groups have reduced access to the things they need to be physically and mentally well. These are known as the “social determinants of health” (SDoH), and they include safety, housing, education, access to healthcare, and food security.

The more unfavorable SDoHs a person has, the more likely depression is, according to a 2024 analysis of U.S. data. Some examples of this include, but are not limited to:

Economic inequity

Income may have links to depression risk, with lower incomes being a risk factor and higher incomes being protective.

Experiencing poverty and job or food insecurity can be major stressors. A lack of health insurance coverage can also mean that getting help for depression is more difficult.

Sexism and gender inequity

Twice as many women have a depression diagnosis as men. The reasons for this are complex, but a major contributing factor is gender discrimination and inequity.

This manifests in many ways. A 2020 articleTrusted Source states that, in comparison to men, women have more exposure to some stressors, such as domestic abuse and caregiving demands, but fewer resources, education, and rates of employment.

There are also some specific forms of depression that affect females, such as premenstrual dysphoric disorder and postpartum depression.

Learn more about depression in women.

Racism

A 2022 study notes that the burden of illness for depression in the United States is also higher among Black, Latinx, Asian, and Native American people in comparison to white people.

This is due to the historical and current effects of racism on these groups. Racial discrimination increases the risk of depression, whether it is obvious and direct or ambiguous and subtle.

Structural inequity also affects levels of chronic stress, trauma, and the quality and availability of mental health support.

Learn more about the link between racism and mental health.

FAQ

Below are some frequently asked questions about what causes depression.

Does age play a role in depression risk?

Depression is more common in certain age groups, but it is difficult to say whether age itself is the reason for this or whether it is due to other factors.

According to data from the CDCTrusted Source, depression symptoms of any severity were most prevalent among adults aged 18 to 29 in 2019, followed by middle-aged or older adults. The lowest rates were among those aged 30 to 44.

Can lack of physical activity contribute to depression?

While some evidence suggests that a lack of physical activity could be a risk factor for depression, the connection between the two is complex.

A 2023 studyTrusted Source refers to the connection as a “bidirectional relationship.” This means that one influences the other: lower activity may increase depressive symptoms, but depression itself can also lead to less activity.

However, scientists do know that physical exercise can be a protective factor against depression. A large 2022 reviewTrusted Source of past studies found that even small amounts of physical activity provided significant benefits in comparison to no activity.

How do sleep patterns affect depression risk?

There is some evidence that sleep patterns may affect depression risk. For example, a 2021 studyTrusted Source of trainee doctors found that reduced total sleep time, a higher variability of total sleep time, and going to bed later at night all had a correlation with depressive symptoms.

The mood of participants increased when they got more sleep in a more consistent pattern, with predictable sleep and waking times.

Summary

There are many potential risk factors for depression, ranging from genetics and physical health to stress and trauma. Depression also affects some groups of people more than others due to social and economic factors, such as poverty.

Anyone with concerns they may have depression symptoms or mood changes should speak with a doctor or therapist if they can.

If a person has thoughts of suicide, they should seek support right away.